Roman Naming Conventions
Nothing is more identifiably Roman in the eyes of the modern reader than long and peculiar names ending in –us. Gaius Julius Caesar, Marcus Tullius Cicero, and Gnaeus Marcius Coriolanus are just a few of the more famous examples. It begs the question, what were the Roman naming conventions? Was there any meaning behind these names?
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Roman Naming Conventions
The Roman State and its civilization existed for at least 1200 years, depending on how we define it. Was the Eastern Roman Empire a continuation of the ancient Italian civilization? If yes, add another 1000 years.
What about the Carolingian and subsequent Holy Roman Empires? The latter existed until 1806 A.D.—yep, the last “Roman” Emperor outlived Benjamin Franklin and George Washington.
As you can imagine, a lot of things changed during the long centuries, including the Roman naming conventions. That said, the so-called tria nomina existed, in one form or another, for most of the Italian period of the Roman civilization.
Praenomen and Nomen
In pre-Roman times, the various people inhabiting Italy bore a single personal name. It could describe one’s dominant physical attribute, a religious preference, or even filiation (e.g., Marcius was a personal name derived from Marci filius, meaning “son of Marcus”). The need for more complex naming conventions arose as the social structure developed.
Italy’s Etruscan and Italic-speaking people (e.g., the Latins) were organized into family clans called gentes (sing., gens). So, identifying individuals also by their clan affiliation became the norm.
Unsurprisingly, the Romans continued the conventions of their ancestors and used personal names and clan names to distinguish individuals, or the praenomen and nomen. Thus, Tullus Hostilius was a guy named Tullus who was a member of the Hostilia family. Numa Pompilius was Numa of the Pompilia family, and so on.
Initially, Roman women were named using the same binominal system.
It is worth noting that in written form, the nomen was followed by other identifying elements, mainly the father’s name. For instance, the famous Mark Antony would “sign” his name M*ANTONIVS*M*F*M*N, meaning Marcus Antonius Marci Filius Marci Nepos (Marcus Antonius, Son of Marcus, Grandson of Marcus).
Cognomen
By the early days of the Republic, some patricians began using a third name, called a cognomen. It was a kind of fancy nickname like those used by today’s celebrities. Dwayne “The Rock” Johnson or Dan “The Dragon” Wilson come to mind.
The most valued cognomina were the ones bestowed by the grateful Senate and the People of Rome. A victorious general might be rewarded with an honorific nickname, celebrating his success. Gnaeus Marcius became Gnaeus Marcius Coriolanus after his victory over the city of Corioli.
Not all nicknames were flattering, though. For instance, the main character of my book is Lucius Lucretius Strabo. His cognomen means “squinty.” The modern word strabismus (cross-eyed) also derives from the Latin “strabo.”
In time, some of the cognomina became hereditary, especially if the person who initially wore it was someone worth associating with. Apparently, one of Marcus Tullius Cicero’s noteworthy ancestors had a cleft on his nose resembling a chickpea (cicer means chickpea).
Also, the branches of a specific clan could identify themselves using a combination of nomen and cognomen. In this case, the new clan name was formed using two words. For example, Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus was a guy named Publius from the Scipio branch of the Cornelia clan, known as Africanus, due to his victory over the Carthaginians.
Gradually, most patricians got themselves a cognomen, but the trend wasn’t fashionable with the plebeians, who comprised most of the Roman population. So, during the Kingdom and most of the Republican Periods, the binominal system was used for official purposes.
Roman Naming Conventions in the Imperial Period
As Rome became a vast empire, the naming conventions had to keep pace with its growth. By this time, the nomen and cognomen became the standard identifiers of a male citizen. Personal names were still used, but the personalized cognomina replaced their practical function.
The use of praenomina fell out of use for women. They had only one official name derived from the clan name. Optionally, women could have another unofficial identifier to distinguish them from their sisters and mothers. To exemplify, Octavia the Elder was the daughter of Senator Gaius Octavius, Emperor Octavian Augustus’ father. Her younger half-sister was Octavia the Younger.
Later, women also used personalized cognomina in addition to their clan names.
Adoptive Names
Romans practiced adoption for many reasons. For instance, when a particular family ran out of males, it was common practice to adopt a promising man into the family, perhaps the husband of a female family member. Thus, the clan’s name and heritage continued, and the fortune stayed with the family, so to speak.
A famous example is Gaius Julius Caesar, who adopted the future first emperor of Rome. Thus, young Gaius Octavius became Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, or “Gaius of the Julius clan, known as Caesar, formerly of the Octavius clan.” Later, he also received the honorific Augustus (“the Exalted One”); this is why English speakers know him today as Octavian Augustus.
What Happened to Freed Slaves
When a Roman owner manumitted slaves, they became freedmen (libertini, sing. libertus). Thus, the former slaves were granted Roman citizenship, although with some restrictions on their political rights. Their descendants, though, were full Roman citizens, provided they were born after their parents’ manumission.
So, how were freedmen called?
Simply put, the freedman took the clan name of his former master, forming a kind of father-son bond. Thus, Lucius, Marcus Antonius’ slave, would become Lucius Antonius after his manumission. A freedwoman would be called Antonia Something to differentiate her from other Antonias in the clan, possibly her slave name.
How would you address a Roman?
I would say the rules were similar to ours. The form of address depended on the relationship between the persons. Let’s take the example of my book’s main protagonist. How would we address Lucius Lucretius Strabo, an agent of the Imperial Secret Service?
If you were friends or close family members, you would be expected to call him by his praenomina or by combining his personal and clan name. In most cases, you’ll address him as Lucius. His mother might call him Lucius Lucretius if she were angry, though. “Lucius Lucretius, how many times did I tell you not to leave your toys on the floor?”
The polite way of addressing someone was by using their nomen and cognomen. “Lucretius Strabo” was the equivalent of today’s “Mr. Lucretius.”
Lastly, calling someone by their cognomen was similar to calling someone by their family name today, without any honorific or mister. Replace “Johnson” with “Strabo” in the phrase, “Johnson! You are late again!” to get the idea.
What would be your Roman name?
At first glance, the Roman naming conventions seem complicated, although they are similar to ours. Let’s take my name, for example.
My English full name is Alexander-Anthony Zudor.
Romans had only one personal name, so let’s drop “Anthony.” My praenomen is Alexander.
My family name is Zudor, so my nomen is Zvdorus (“of the Zudors”)—V was the Roman letter for U.
I was very skinny when I was young, so my friends teased me about it—if they could only see my large belly now. Anyway, macer was the Latin word for skinny.
Since I use the written form of my name, adding filiation is expected. My father was Alexander, and my paternal grandfather was Anthony.
In conclusion, my Roman name is:
Alexander Zvdorus Macer Alexandri Filius Antonii Nepos. In English, that translates to “Alexander of the Zudors, known as Skinny, son of Alexander, grandson of Anthony.”
The monuments inscribed with my name would contain the following note: A*ZVDORUS*MACER*A*F*A*N
Pretty cool, huh?
What about you? What is your Roman name?
